1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1.1. Report Overview

1.2. Executive Summary (1) - Key Market Takeaways

1.3. Executive Summary (2) - Key Technical Findings

1.4. Hydrogen Combustion Engines - Older Than the Diesel Engine

1.5. H2ICE for Hard to Abate Sectors

1.6. H2ICE, Why Now?

1.7. H2ICE Offers Continuity With Current Drivetrains

1.8. The Messy Middle - a Period of Great Change

1.9. Overview of Powertrain Options

1.10. Chemical Reaction - Gasoline, Hydrogen & Fuel Cells

1.11. Key Technical Differences Between Petrol and Hydrogen ICEs

1.12. Hydrogen Combustion is Not Zero Emissions

1.13. NOx Formation Mechanisms - a Summary

1.14. Strategies to Reduce NOx in Hydrogen Engines

1.15. Real World H2ICE NOx Performance

1.16. Energy Density of Hydrogen

1.17. Options for Onboard Hydrogen Storage

1.18. FCEV and H2ICE Range Comparisons

1.19. Fuel Volume and Mass Requirements

1.20. Volumetric Density of Fuels - Comparison

1.21. Costs at the Pump - Hydrogen Has a Premium

1.22. System Efficiency - BEV, FCEV & H2ICE

1.23. Industry Landscape - H2ICE

1.24. Suppliers Hedge Their Bets

1.25. Is H2ICE a Fast-to-Market Solution?

1.26. H2ICE Contradiction

1.27. Hydrogen Combustion Engine, ZEV (Zero-emission Vehicle) or Not?

1.28. H2-ICE, BEV and FCEV Summary Table

1.29. H2ICE Drivers & Barriers to Adoption

1.30. Forecast Summary - Sector Split

1.31. H2ICE Forecasts - Market Shares

1.32. HD Truck Market by Drivetrains, 2025-2045

1.33. H2ICE Forecasts - Market Value

2. INTRODUCTION TO HYDROGEN COMBUSTION

2.1. Hydrogen Combustion Engines - Older Than the Diesel Engine

2.2. H2ICE, Why Now?

2.3. H2ICE for Hard to Abate Sectors

2.4. H2ICE, Why Now?

2.5. H2ICE Offers Continuity With Current Drivetrains

2.6. Overview of Powertrain Options

2.7. The Messy Middle - a Period of Great Change

2.8. Hydrogen Combustion Engine, ZEV (Zero-emission Vehicle) or Not?

2.9. Industry Landscape - H2ICE

2.10. Selection of OEMs and Tier-1s with H2ICE Projects

2.11. Is H2-ICE a Fast-to-Market Solution?

2.12. H2ICE Contradiction

2.13. H2-ICE, BEV and FCEV Summary Table

2.14. Hydrogen Combustion System Layouts

2.15. H2ICE CAPEX Advantage - Industry Figures

2.16. Is there a TCO case for H2ICE? - (1)

2.17. Is there a TCO case for H2ICE - (2)

2.18. Li-ion Cost Improvements

3. H2ICE OUTLOOK BY SECTOR

3.1. H2ICE Sector Commentary

3.1.1. Commercial Segment Emerges as the Key Opportunity for H2ICE

3.1.2. H2ICE Prototypes - Genuine Interest or Ploy for Funding

3.2. Trucking

3.2.1. Commercial Segments with H2ICE Draw - Trucking

3.2.2. Long Haul Trucking - H2ICE Solves Many Pain Points

3.2.3. MAN - Limited H2ICE Production Run

3.2.4. Mercedez Truck - H2 Powered Unimog

3.2.5. KEYOU

3.2.6. DAF BEV, H2-ICE, and FCEV

3.2.7. Southwest Research Institute Consortium

3.2.8. SwRI - a Converted H2 Class-8 Truck

3.2.9. Tata Motors H2-ICE Truck

3.2.10. Cummins Inc. - Fuel Agnostic Engine Lineup

3.2.11. Cummins H2-ICE Approach

3.2.12. Industry Converges on Standards for H2ICE Trucks

3.3. Non-Road Mobile Machinery

3.3.1. Commercial Segments with H2ICE Draw - NRMM

3.3.2. Options for NRMM

3.3.3. Diverse Strategy from Many OEMs

3.3.4. JCB - "Powertrain Selection for Net Zero Construction Equipment"

3.3.5. CAM Drivetrain Suitability

3.4. Cars

3.4.1. Passenger Cars

3.4.2. Toyota - BEV Reluctance Continues in H2-ICE

3.4.3. FAW - Hydrogen Engine Tests

3.4.4. Supercars & Hypercars - Low Volume High Performance Segment

3.4.5. Supercar Manufacturers Dodge ICE Ban in Europe

3.4.6. Impact of Regulations on Supercar Manufacturers

3.4.7. Supercars at the Forefront of Innovation

3.4.8. Performance Oriented H2ICE

3.5. Aviation

3.5.1. Aviation

3.5.2. Power Requirements for Green Hydrogen in Aviation

4. TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF HYDROGEN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

4.1. Introduction to Combustion Engines

4.2. Combustion Chamber For a Four-Stroke Spark Ignition Engine

4.3. Chemical Properties of H2

4.4. Key Technical Differences Between Petrol and Hydrogen ICEs

4.5. Chemical Reaction - Gasoline, Hydrogen & Fuel Cells

4.6. Air to Fuel Ratio - an Overview

4.7. Air to Fuel Ratio for Hydrogen vs Petrol

4.8. Rich, Stochiometric or Lean for Hydrogen Engines

4.9. Ignition Energy

4.10. Auto-ignition Temperature

4.11. Flame Speed

4.12. Diffusivity

4.13. Quenching Distance

4.14. Injection Strategies

5. TAILPIPE EMISSIONS OF A HYDROGEN COMBUSTION ENGINE

5.1. Tailpipe Emissions - Overview

5.2. H2ICE- Motor Oil Emissions Assessment

5.3. Hydrogen Combustion is Not Zero Emissions

5.4. NOx - the Big Question for Hydrogen Emissions

5.5. Hydrogen Combustion and NOx Formation

5.6. NOx Formation Mechanisms - a Summary

5.7. Engine Speed and NOx

5.8. NOx Emissions in H2ICE - Academic Studies

5.9. NOx in Diesel/Hydrogen Dual Fuel

5.10. Studies Produce Conflicting Results for Dual-Fuel

5.11. NOx in Gasoline Dual Fuel - Effect of Lambda

5.12. Approaches to Limiting NOx in Current Vehicles

5.13. Overview of Catalytic Converters

5.14. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

5.15. Lean NOx Trap

5.16. Selective Catalytic Reduction

5.17. Strategies to Reduce NOx in Hydrogen Engines

5.18. Three-Way Catalysts for Hydrogen Engines

5.19. LNT for Hydrogen Engines

5.20. SCR for Hydrogen Engines

5.21. Toyota Explores Direct Water Cooling

5.22. EGR for Hydrogen Engines

5.23. NOx Emissions for Passenger Vehicles

5.24. NOx Emissions for Heavy Duty Vehicles

5.25. Real World H2ICE NOx Performance

5.26. NOx Emissions - Aviation

5.27. Contrail Emissions - Aviation

6. HYDROGEN AS A FUEL

6.1. Hydrogen Overview

6.1.1. IDTechEx's Hydrogen Research Portfolio

6.1.2. Hydrogen as Fuel - Overview

6.1.3. Energy Density of Hydrogen

6.1.4. Hydrogen as Fuel - Overview

6.1.5. Hydrogen as a Fuel

6.1.6. The Hydrogen Economy

6.2. Production and Costs of Hydrogen

6.2.1. Hydrogen: Emissions & Cost Issues

6.2.2. The Colours of Hydrogen

6.2.3. The colors of hydrogen

6.2.4. State of the hydrogen industry - Green Hydrogen is a Small Fraction

6.2.5. Traditional hydrogen production

6.2.6. Removing CO₂ emissions from hydrogen production

6.2.7. Main electrolyzer technologies

6.2.8. Future trend of the electrolyzer market

6.2.9. Important competing factors for the green H2 market

6.2.10. Green Hydrogen Production Costs

6.2.11. H2 Fuel Price More than Production Cost

6.2.12. On-site H2 Production in Europe

6.2.13. Passenger Car CO₂ Emissions - H2ICE, FCEV, BEV & Fossil Fuels

6.2.14. Cost of Hydrogen at the Pump (1/2)

6.2.15. Cost of Hydrogen at the Pump (2/2)

6.2.16. Costs at the Pump - Hydrogen Has a Premium

6.2.17. Required Hydrogen Price for Gasoline Parity

6.3. Distribution & Refueling Infrastructure

6.3.1. Distribution & Refueling Overview

6.3.2. H2-ICE & FCEV - an Opportunity for Parallel Infrastructure Rollout?

6.3.3. Overview of distribution methods

6.3.4. Hydrogen distribution methods by stage of development

6.3.5. Transporting Hydrogen Requires More Trailers

6.3.6. Hydrogen refueling stations (HRS)

6.3.7. HRS Sizing Depends on Usage

6.3.8. Toyotas HRS Approach

6.3.9. Alternative hydrogen refueling concepts

6.3.10. Available Hydrogen Infrastructure by Region

6.3.11. State of hydrogen refueling infrastructure worldwide (1/2)

6.3.12. State of hydrogen refueling infrastructure worldwide (2/2)

6.3.13. Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure - Europe

6.3.14. Europe TEN-T Core Network

6.3.15. H2ICE Contradiction

6.3.16. HRS in the USA Limited to California

6.3.17. The Clean Energy Partnership

6.3.18. LIFTE H2: higher pressure transportation is needed

6.3.19. LIFTE H2: Mobile H2 refuelers are more competitive

6.3.20. Infrastructure Costs - BEV vs Hydrogen

6.4. Onboard Storage

6.4.1. Options for Onboard Hydrogen Storage

6.4.2. Hydrogen storage methods by stage of development

6.4.3. Options for Physical Hydrogen Storage

6.4.4. Compressed hydrogen storage

6.4.5. Geometries and Limitations of Storage Methods

6.4.6. Compressed storage vessel classification

6.4.7. Reduction in compressed cylinder weight

6.4.8. Compressed Hydrogen in HDVs

6.4.9. Compressed Hydrogen in LDVs

6.4.10. Forvia - Major Tier 1 Explores Rectangular Tanks

6.4.11. FCEV onboard hydrogen tanks

6.4.12. Liquid hydrogen (LH2)

6.4.13. Cryo-compressed hydrogen storage (CcH2)

6.4.14. BMW'S Cryo-compressed storage tank

6.4.15. Chemical Storage

6.4.16. Hydrogen Safety

6.5. Hydrogen Fuel Consumption & Range

6.5.1. Hydrogen Combustion Powered Vehicles

6.5.2. H2-ICE Efficiency vs FCEV

6.5.3. Real World Range Comparisons - H2ICE and FCEVs

6.5.4. Fuel Consumption

6.5.5. FCEV Range Improvements

6.5.6. Hydrogen Consumption Comparisons - FCEV and H2ICE

6.5.7. BEV, FCEV and H2ICE Comparisons

6.5.8. FCEV and H2ICE Range Comparisons.

6.5.9. H2 Storage Required for Parity - Racecar

6.5.10. Volumetric and Gravimetric Requirements for 1km

6.5.11. Volume Required for 1km Travelled

6.5.12. Volume and Weight Required - Tank Considerations

6.5.13. System Efficiency - BEV, FCEV & H2ICE

6.5.14. Well-to-Wheel Consumption

7. HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT

7.1. Hydrogen embrittlement & mechanisms

7.2. Types of hydrogen embrittlement

7.3. Factors influencing H2 embrittlement

7.4. Effect of impurities on H2 embrittlement

7.5. Hydrogen embrittlement & compatible metal alloys

8. FORECASTS

8.1. H2ICE Drivers & Barriers to Adoption

8.2. Forecast Summary - Drivetrain Comparisons

8.3. Forecast Summary - Sector Split

8.4. Forecast Assumptions

8.5. H2ICE Forecasts - Unit Sales 2025-2045 (1)

8.6. H2ICE Forecasts - Unit Sales 2025-2045 (2)

8.7. H2ICE Forecasts - Regional Analysis

8.8. H2ICE Forecasts - Market Shares

8.9. HD Truck Market by Drivetrains, 2025-2045

8.10. H2ICE Forecasts - Market Value